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The key attributes associated with reflective attitudes Dewey, , extended professionals Hoyle, ; Stenhouse, and the teacher as a professional Day, ; Eraut, ; Hoyle and John, are particularly significant as these have resonance with the central features used to characterise the teacher as researcher Hopkins, ; Stenhouse, Although the dimensions presented in Figure 1.

It is important to note that although the dimensions are presented in a linear, sequential manner from 1 through 9, any one dimension can provide the initial catalyst for reflective practice. For example, a debriefing session with a mentor or professional tutor following an observation of your lesson might through discussion provide the springboard from which you consider alternative perspectives and possibilities dimension 5 for future lessons, or you might decide to attend a specific training session offered by your local authority or subject association to continue to improve your own teaching dimension 9.

Following the initial impetus to engage in reflective activity, other dimensions will come into play; ultimately they all interrelate and each forms an integral part of the construct. The picture should begin to emerge as a coherent whole. Consider alternative Try out Question perspectives new their personal and strategies theories and possibilities and ideas Maximise Link theory beliefs with their the learning own practice potential of all their 5 students Systematically 4 6 Enhance the evaluate their own teaching quality of their 3 Reflective practice is 7 through classroom research own teaching a disposition to enquiry procedures incorporating the process through which 2 student, early career and experienced teachers 8 Study their own structure or restructure Continue to teaching for personal actions, beliefs, knowledge and theories improve their improvement 1 that inform teaching for the purpose of 9 own teaching professional development.

Two very broad, interrelated strands — a disposition to enquiry and a process — are embedded within this definition. Ways in which the work of key proponents within the field contribute toward an understanding of the characteristic features associated with the first strand are identified in the following sub-sections of this chapter.

The second strand, which captures reflective practice as a process, incorporates numerous concepts advanced by theorists over past decades, particularly in relation to the nature of reflective activity and its translation into professional practice. Although some of these processes are inextricably linked to a disposition to enquiry and are briefly touched upon here, Chapters 3 through 11 explore the main concepts and theories used to clarify the range of processes embedded within each dimension of reflective practice highlighted in Figure 1.

Ref lectiv e pra ct ice a s a di sposi t io n to e nq ui ry Reflective attitudes Reflective practice as a disposition to enquiry has at its roots the early work of Dewey , specifically in relation to the reflective attitudes of open-mindedness, responsibility and wholeheartedness, which he considers to be both prerequisite and integral to reflective action.

Reflective teachers question and challenge why they do as they do Zeichner and Liston, by interrogating assumptions, beliefs and personal theories from a range of perspectives or lenses Brookfield, , which can be evidenced in those who are open to scrutiny and change. Responsibility refers to the disposition to carefully consider the consequences of actions and willingness to accept those consequences. Teachers who evaluate their own practice and question whether the outcomes are effective, for whom and in what ways, as opposed to those who merely question whether their objectives have been met Zeichner and Liston, , demonstrate responsibility.

Wholeheartedness refers to the way in which open-mindedness and responsibility come together, through an interest in and enthusiasm for some situation or event. Whole-hearted teachers examine their assumptions, beliefs and the consequences of their actions regularly and approach each situation with a view to learning something new Zeichner and Liston, As Dewey 30 writes:. When a person is absorbed, the subject carries him on.

Questions occur to him spontaneously; a flood of suggestions … further inquiries and readings are indicated and followed … the material holds and buoys his mind up and gives an onward impetus to thinking.

The early work of Hoyle gave rise to the distinction between restricted and extended professionals. Characteristics used to describe restricted professionals include: a high level of skill in classroom practice; an ability to understand, establish and enjoy positive working relationships with children by adopting a child-centred approach; the use of personal perceptions of change in pupil behaviour and achievement to evaluate performance; and short-term practical course attendance.

Characteristics used to describe extended professionals incorporate all those associated with restricted professionals in addition to the following:. Reflective task 1. Explain why you have reached this conclusion. At the heart of reflecting on teaching and of research into teaching is a concern to ensure that all pupils learn as a result of your teaching.

Genuine commitment to teacher development arises from critically constructive self-reflection and considered response, which has the potential to develop into more systematic research into teaching. The teacher as a professional Teaching and learning about how to become an effective teacher centre on complex, interrelated sets of thoughts and actions. They can be perceived as demanding tasks, which might be approached in a number of different ways.

While reflective practice is very much part of what is currently expected of teachers, there has long been concern for teachers to take responsibility for their own professional learning and development. During the s there was considerable debate amongst theorists about how to conceptualise the teacher as a professional, which builds further on the work advanced by Dewey and Stenhouse. All natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group or school, which contribute, through these, to the quality of education in the classroom.

It is the process by which, alone and with others, teachers review, renew and extend their commitment as change agents to the moral purposes of teaching: and by which they acquire and develop critically the knowledge, skills and emotional intelligence essential to good professional thinking, planning and practice with children, young people and colleagues throughout each phase of their teaching lives.

Did anything surprise you? Have you learned anything new about yourself? Have you discovered areas in need of development? For each area, identify three steps you can take to improve in this area. It also embraces the development of the individual teacher, the pupils and the school, affective aspects of personal growth and development driven by intrinsic motivations and explicitly makes reference to continuing professional development.

Day makes reference to a relatively new and under-researched construct within the field of education, which has important implications in the context of teaching and learning — that of emotional intelligence.

In writing about the teacher as a professional, Eraut suggests accountability is exemplified when professionals demonstrate:. Table 1. The interrelationship between these concepts has been summarised by Furlong, Barton, Miles, Whiting and Whitty 5 as follows:. It is because professionals face complex and unpredictable situations that they need a specialised form of knowledge; if they are to apply that knowledge, it is argued that they need the autonomy to make their own judgements.

Given that they have that autonomy, it is essential that they act with responsibility — collectively they need to develop appropriate professional values. This highlights not only the importance for practitioners to clearly express and frequently review their own professional values but also that these values need to derive from an understanding of what constitutes appropriate ethical practice in educational contexts.

To realise this aim teachers must justify how their own values are underpinned by the expectations of what those within the profession regard as appropriate, legitimate rules of engagement. This can, in part, be accomplished by reflecting critically on what it is that you do and importantly, justifying why it is that you are doing it, in relation to what is happening around you in your own classroom and the wider context of your school.

This said, a number of teachers within the same school context may have different backgrounds, different career aspirations, different expectations and different priorities along with divergent perspectives as to the nature, goals and purposes of education and schooling, which may lead to differences in their respective values.

Summar y o f key poi nt s This chapter has introduced the Framework of Reflective Practice, which defines and captures this elusive phenomenon within nine dimensions of reflective practice. The reflective attitudes of open-mindedness, responsibility and wholeheartedness; characteristics and key attributes of extended professionals; and qualities associated with the teacher as a professional signpost how reflective practice as a disposition to enquiry has been interpreted within this construct.

It has also invited you to explore how your emotional intelligence may influence and be reflected in your approach to teaching and learning. Although articulated some years ago, these same concepts and theories remain highly significant for teachers working within the context of twenty-first-century schools and permeate through the professional standards teachers must evidence in addition to the code of professional values and practice they must uphold to demonstrate personal effectiveness, across the national and international landscape.

Recommended rea di ng Day, C. Available online: www. When viewed collectively these sources provide a global perspective of how the professional landscape of teaching is and has been changing, particularly since the turn of the twenty-first century, in response to broader changes within society and the significant challenges facing teachers, education and training systems in the world today.

In troduction Numerous scholars, researchers and practitioners within the field of education have sought to capture and explain qualitative distinctions exemplified by professionals in their reflective practice. A common thread permeating through many of the concepts and theories proposed is that the types of discourse or reflective conversations teachers engage in, may be indicative of their development from surface to deep to transformative learning Moon, ; progressive stages of epistemological cognition Baxter Magolda, ; and different stages of reflective reasoning King and Kitchener, Table 2.

This chapter explores the nature of these qualitative distinctions by introducing three broad types of discourse: descriptive, comparative and critical reflective conversations. Figure 2. The terms discourse and reflective conversation are used interchangeably to denote ways of thinking and speaking about teaching as well as of practising teaching Fairclough, Ref lectiv e conversa t ions As a form of discourse, the reflective conversation Loughran, ; Schon, ; Yinger, is recognised as the responsive interchange between acting and thinking and an insight into the data of reflective practice.

As such, the reflective conversation can be positioned at the very heart of the improvement process and has potential on the one hand, to challenge and disturb those educational values and goals teachers perceive to be important and on the other, to reaffirm those values and goals they perceive as important in defining the kind of teacher they aspire to be. If you are to recognise factors, which either serve to improve or constrain your own practice, Smyth claims you will need to engage with some very fundamental questions:.

Different types of question may lead to different patterns of thinking. It is formative in nature and aims to develop your skills and capabilities. Analysis questions enable you to break down what you already know and reassemble this knowledge to help you solve a problem.

Such questions can be linked to more abstract, conceptual thinking which is central to the process of enquiry. Reflective task 2. This is summative in nature and aims to develop the goals and standards you have set for yourself. Evaluative questions enable you to use your knowledge to form judgements and to justify and defend those judgements. Such questions involve more complex thinking and reasoning skills.

The terms analytical reflection and evaluative reflection are used by Cowan to distinguish between these two types of discourse. What should become apparent is that you will need to engage in different types of questioning as you interrogate why you do what you do in a given context if you are to learn from your experiences. Narrative enquiry A body of literature has emerged in recent decades, which captures the stories of teachers as they strive to become more effective practitioners.

Through narrative enquiry, their voices can be heard as they speak of ways in which they experience their own professional learning and professional lives in education e. When characterised as a discourse, it should become evident through the way in which you frame questions and use language to explore your teaching and learning experiences, that different types of reflective conversation can be identified. Each type serves a particular purpose and may be used to shape the way in which you express and make sense of your own practice.

Underpinning the direction of reflective conversations you can engage in with self, others and theoretical literature are the different types of question you might ask.

Moving from dualism toward relativism Early qualitative research on student learning Perry, indicates a developmental trend in the nature of thinking during higher education in which students gradually shift from a belief in dualism right answers exist to recognition of relativism conclusions rest on evidence which learners interpret themselves. In building upon this work, King and Kitchener devised a model of reflective judgement based on findings from their ten-year longitudinal empirical study.

They use the term reflective judgement to denote epistemological cognition, which is underpinned by the assertion that some problems cannot be resolved with certainty. In their study, university students were asked to work with ill-structured problems and discuss their respective experiences of having worked through the process to resolve them. The findings led King and Kitchener to devise a model characterised by seven distinct, yet developmentally related, sets of assumptions.

These assumptions are concerned with the process of knowing view of knowledge and of how that knowledge is acquired justification of beliefs. Their model can broadly be summarised in three phases:. They believe they must actively construct their decisions and knowledge claims must be evaluated in relation to the context in which they were generated to determine their validity.

The most advanced stage indicates a level of understanding has been reached which enables individuals to work with provisional or uncertain knowledge and information. At this stage, individuals acknowledge there is not necessarily any one correct answer to a given situation but several possible solutions. Recognition is also given to the notion that expert practitioners may have competing views. She notes that although the focus of their research might have been to measure epistemological cognition, an influence from variables that affect the ability to express or represent those cognitions, whether orally or in written tasks, was inevitable.

The deepest level of reflective writing incorporates the consideration of: multiple perspectives, engagement with prior experiences, the broader context surrounding issues, and meta-cognition. Moon ibid. There is also an awareness of relevant emotional issues and an understanding of how emotions can relate to, and influence, thinking. Psychological researchers with expertise in learning theory, view reflection as a means to metacognitive awareness, which they explain in terms of: knowing what one knows; having strategies for getting and using that knowledge; and knowing that one has those strategies e.

Moshman, Themes common to the work of Baxter Magolda, King and Kitchener, and Moon are the views that reflective and cognitive activity can operate on a range of levels dependent upon how knowledge is generated, developed and processed.

Also, the capacity to reflect is developmental and progressive in nature, from working with certain basic, concrete knowledge to working with provisional or uncertain knowledge. There is also an emphasis on the notion that reflective skills can, in part, be learned through a range of strategies and techniques and applied to practice to resolve issues or concerns. An awareness of the components embedded within these common themes is of central importance in coming to understand different patterns of thinking which can be exemplified by teachers at various stages of their professional development.

Ref lectiv e a nd rout ine pra ct i ce Dewey not only places an emphasis on the need to develop certain skills of thinking and reasoning in order to become a reflective practitioner but also draws a sharp contrast between reflective and routine action which has shaped the way many researchers and teacher educators distinguish between different types and forms of reflection McIntyre, ; van Manen, ; Zeichner and Liston, , Conversely, Dewey argues that routine action is guided by a disposition to accept the most commonly held view of resolving a problem in a given situation in a routine almost thought-less way.

No attempt is made to experiment with alternative strategies or viewpoints; rather, attention is directed toward the means to achieve specific ends which are taken for granted, guided by such factors as authority, custom, expectations, institutional definitions and tradition. Teachers come to recognise that meanings are not absolute, rather they are embedded in and negotiated through language Fosnot, ; Hatton and Smith, Zeichner and Liston 27 draw similar distinctions to van Manen between reflective and routine practice and express these in terms of the teacher as technician, craftsperson and moral craftsperson:.

The teacher as technician would be concerned primarily with the successful accomplishment of ends decided by others. The craftsperson teacher would consider the educational justification for classroom actions and how well the educational goals are being accomplished. The teacher as moral craftsperson would also be concerned with the moral and ethical implications of particular institutional arrangements. The nature of particular types of question, which van Manen and Zeichner and Liston use to distinguish between routine and reflective practice, has raised concern.

Although moral and ethical questions are important, particularly when the needs and interests of pupils must be addressed, Furlong and Maynard caution that to prioritise and separate moral and ethical questions from those which might focus on other aspects of teaching, such as the nature of pedagogy and of how pupils learn, could be perceived as inappropriate.

The arguments underpinning the distinction drawn by Dewey between reflective and routine action has also been challenged. Zeichner and Liston also assert that educational and moral dimensions are always implicit within teaching even when viewed as a technical process.

They clarify that the purpose behind the distinctions they have drawn between the teacher as technician, craftsperson and moral craftsperson was to shape their own teacher education programme and they claim that by explicitly placing an emphasis on each of these components, pre-service teachers are better able to recognise them in their own teaching.

Taking this line of argument further, Barnett suggests that by reflecting on their own situation student teachers gain awareness as to the causes and consequences of their actions and come to understand their true situation sufficiently to create the freedoms they need for themselves and proposes a system, which includes both action and critique, within a frame of reference that focuses on the student teacher as a developing person. He identifies action, self-reflection and understanding as three key domains that higher education needs to focus on and considers empowered student teachers are capable of critical self-reflection and critical action.

Underpinning the goal toward becoming a critically reflective practitioner is the metaphor liberation. In light of the preceding discussion, particularly in relation to critical thinking, and reflective and routine practice, it is evident that there are anomalies in the ways in which qualitative distinctions in reflective practice have been interpreted.

These anomalies reflect the complex, multifaceted nature of concepts associated with this phenomenon. There are however also a number of commonalities and recurrent themes, which can be synthesised from the eminent scholars, researchers and practitioners.

To that end, the following sections capture salient features, which can distinguish between three types of discourse you can engage in and exemplify in your own practice. It is useful to reiterate here that the term discourse is used in a broad sense to denote ways of thinking and speaking about teaching as well as of practising teaching. Descriptive reflective conversations This type of discourse is based on concrete experience as you examine and frame aspects of your own classroom practice.

It can be characterised as a retrospective personal account of teaching, which involves returning to experience Boud, Keogh and Walker, and providing a detailed description of that experience. Gere, Barry J. Crowe, Donald F. Roberson, Barbara C. Ehrhardt , Eugene F. Bergen, Vijay Vitta. Could you please send me the solution manual of Applied Statistical Methods and Probability for Engineers, 5th edition?

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